Iranian Journal of Medical Sciences

Iranian Journal of Medical Sciences

Current Issue

By Issue

By Author

By Subject

Author Index

Keyword Index

About Journal

Aims and Scope

Journal Team

Publication Ethics

Indexing and Abstracting

Related Links

Peer Review Process

Journal Metrics

Exploring the Adverse Effects of Fenugreek in Humans: A Scoping Review

Articles InPress

Document Type : Review Article

Authors

1 Department of Phytopharmaceuticals (Traditional Pharmacy), School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

2 Molecular Dermatology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

3 Research Center for Traditional Medicine and History of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

4 Smart University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

5 Department of Medical Journalism, School of Paramedical Sciences, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran

6 Department of Persian Medicine, School of Persian Medicine, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Ardakan, Yazd, Iran

7 Department of Internal and Integrative Medicine, Evang. Kliniken Essen-Mitte, Faculty of Medicine, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany

10.30476/ijms.2025.106073.4017

Abstract

Background: Trigonella foenum-graecum, commonly known as fenugreek, is used both as a spice and a medicinal herb. While numerous studies investigated its therapeutic effects, this scoping review aimed to explore the reported adverse effects associated with fenugreek consumption in humans. 
Methods: A systematic search of several scientific databases was conducted, including Google Scholar, Web of Science, PubMed/PMC-MEDLINE, Scopus, and Science Direct, from January 1990 to September 2024. The search utilized keywords such as “Fenugreek”, “Adverse Effects”, “Clinical Trial”, and “Case Report”, or “Case Series”. References of retrieved articles were also screened.
Results: The review included 60 articles. Of these, 14 clinical trials reported adverse effects, 23 reported none, and 13 did not provide information on adverse effects. Additionally, 10 case reports or case series (reported in eight articles) detailed allergic reactions or hypersensitivity signs and symptoms. The most common adverse effect was mild gastrointestinal discomfort following oral consumption. Other reported effects included hypoglycemia, potential hypokalemia, allergic reactions, a maple syrup odor in the urine, sweat, or skin of infants and mothers, and interactions with certain medications. 
Conclusion: Fenugreek is generally considered safe, with most reported side effects being mild and self-limiting. No fatalities have been attributed to its use. This evidence might be valuable for both the general public and healthcare professionals.

Highlights

Ehsan Amiri Ardekani (Google Scholar)
Mohammad Mahdi Parvizi (Google Scholar)

Keywords

References
  1. Jackson AM, Mullican L, Grizzle JH, Sullivan KL. Complementary and alternative medicine prevalence and patterns in the Southeastern United States. Epidemiology Faculty and Staff Presentations. 2016.
  2. Harris PE, Cooper KL, Relton C, Thomas KJ. Prevalence of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) use by the general population: a systematic review and update. Int J Clin Pract. 2012;66:924-39. doi: 10.1111/j.1742-1241.2012.02945.x. PubMed PMID: 22994327.
  3. de Moraes Mello Boccolini P, Siqueira Boccolini C. Prevalence of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) use in Brazil. BMC Complement Med Ther. 2020;20:51. doi: 10.1186/s12906-020-2842-8. PubMed PMID: 32054461; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC7076835.
  4. Lee EL, Richards N, Harrison J, Barnes J. Prevalence of Use of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicine by the General Population: A Systematic Review of National Studies Published from 2010 to 2019. Drug Saf. 2022;45:713-35. doi: 10.1007/s40264-022-01189-w. PubMed PMID: 35788539; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC9296440.
  5. Parvizi MM, Forouhari S, Shahriarirad R, Shahriarirad S, Bradley RD, Roosta L. Prevalence and associated factors of complementary and integrative medicine use in patients afflicted with COVID-19. BMC Complement Med Ther. 2022;22:251. doi: 10.1186/s12906-022-03722-x. PubMed PMID: 36180868; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC9524323.
  6. Bahall M. Complementary and alternative medicine usage among cardiac patients: a descriptive study. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2015;15:100. doi: 10.1186/s12906-015-0610-y. PubMed PMID: 25888160; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4394556.
  7. Posadzki P, Lee MS, Moon TW, Choi TY, Park TY, Ernst E. Prevalence of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) use by menopausal women: a systematic review of surveys. Maturitas. 2013;75:34-43. doi: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2013.02.005. PubMed PMID: 23497959.
  8. Slavin SL, Rogers RG, Komesu Y, Omotosho T, Hammil S, Lewis C, et al. Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) use in women with pelvic floor disorders: a cohort study. Int Urogynecol J. 2010;21:431-7. doi: 10.1007/s00192-009-1058-8. PubMed PMID: 19967336; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3729340.
  9. Parvizi MM, Fatehi N, Jaladat AM, Gholampour Z, Shahriarirad R, Erfani A. Epidemiological factors in patients with dermatologic conditions referring to the clinic of traditional Persian Medicine: A cross-sectional study. Int J Clin Pract. 2021;75:e14788. doi: 10.1111/ijcp.14788. PubMed PMID: 34480839.
  10. Hashempur MH, Mosavat SH, Heydari M, Shams M. Medicinal plants’ use among patients with dyslipidemia: an Iranian cross-sectional survey. J Complement Integr Med. 2018;16. doi: 10.1515/jcim-2018-0101. PubMed PMID: 30391934.
  11. Żuk-Gołaszewska K, Wierzbowska J. Fenugreek: productivity, nutritional value and uses. J Elementol. 2017;22:1396-1411. doi: 10.5601/jelem.2017.22.1.1396.
  12. Aasim M, Baloch FS, Nadeem MA, Bakhsh A, Sameeullah M, Day S. Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.): an underutilized edible plant of modern world. In: Ozturk M, Hakeem KR, Ashraf M, Ahmad M, eds. Global Perspectives on Underutilized Crops. Cham: Springer; 2018. p. 381-8. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-77776-4_12.
  13. Bahmani M, Shirzad H, Mirhosseini M, Mesripour A, Rafieian-Kopaei M. A Review on Ethnobotanical and Therapeutic Uses of Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graceum L). J Evid Based Complementary Altern Med. 2016;21:53-62. doi: 10.1177/2156587215583405. PubMed PMID: 25922446.
  14. Singh P, Bajpai V, Gond V, Kumar A, Tadigoppula N, Kumar B. Determination of Bioactive Compounds of Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) Seeds Using LC-MS Techniques. Methods Mol Biol. 2020;2107:377-93. doi: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0235-5_21. PubMed PMID: 31893460.
  15. Malik A, Jamil U, Butt TT, Waquar S, Gan SH, Shafique H, et al. In silico and in vitro studies of lupeol and iso-orientin as potential antidiabetic agents in a rat model. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2019;13:1501-13. doi: 10.2147/DDDT.S176698. PubMed PMID: 31123393; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6510393.
  16. Gupta RS, Grover AS, Kumar P, Goel A, Banik SP, Chakraborty S, et al. A randomized double blind placebo controlled trial to assess the safety and efficacy of a patented fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) seed extract in Type 2 diabetics. Food Nutr Res. 2024;68. doi: 10.29219/fnr.v68.10667. PubMed PMID: 38863744; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC11165257.
  17. Liu Y, Kakani R, Nair MG. Compounds in functional food fenugreek spice exhibit anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. Food Chem. 2012;131:1187-92. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.09.102.
  18. Leela N, Shafeekh K. Fenugreek, Chemistry of Spices. Wallingford: CAB International; 2008. p. 242-51. doi: 10.1079/9781845934057.0242.
  19. El Nasri NA, El Tinay AH. Functional properties of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum) protein concentrate. Food Chem. 2007;103:582-9. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.09.003.
  20. Fatima T, Maqbool K, Hussain SZ. Potential health benefits of fenugreek. J Med Plants Stud. 2018;6:166-9.
  21. Akbari S, Abdurahman NH, Yunus RM, Alara OR, Abayomi OO. Extraction, characterization and antioxidant activity of fenugreek (Trigonella-foenum graecum) seed oil. Mater Sci Energy Technol. 2019;2:349-55. doi: 10.1016/j.mset.2018.12.001.
  22. Haber SL, Keonavong J. Fenugreek use in patients with diabetes mellitus. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2013;70:1196, 8, 200, 202-3. doi: 10.2146/ajhp120523. PubMed PMID: 23820455.
  23. Raju J, Patlolla JM, Swamy MV, Rao CV. Diosgenin, a steroid saponin of Trigonella foenum graecum (Fenugreek), inhibits azoxymethane-induced aberrant crypt foci formation in F344 rats and induces apoptosis in HT-29 human colon cancer cells. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2004;13:1392-8. PubMed PMID: 15298963.
  24. Sharma RD, Raghuram TC, Rao VD. Hypolipidaemic effect of fenugreek seeds. A clinical study. Phytother Res. 1991;5:145-7. doi: 10.1002/ptr.2650050313.
  25. Mansoori A, Hosseini S, Zilaee M, Hormoznejad R, Fathi M. Effect of fenugreek extract supplement on testosterone levels in male: A meta-analysis of clinical trials. Phytother Res. 2020;34:1550-5. doi: 10.1002/ptr.6627. PubMed PMID: 32048383.
  26. Navarro Del Hierro J, Casado-Hidalgo G, Reglero G, Martin D. The hydrolysis of saponin-rich extracts from fenugreek and quinoa improves their pancreatic lipase inhibitory activity and hypocholesterolemic effect. Food Chem. 2021;338:128113. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.128113. PubMed PMID: 33092009.
  27. Ghasemi V, Kheirkhah M, Vahedi M. The Effect of Herbal Tea Containing Fenugreek Seed on the Signs of Breast Milk Sufficiency in Iranian Girl Infants. Iran Red Crescent Med J. 2015;17:e21848. doi: 10.5812/ircmj.21848. PubMed PMID: 26430522; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4585338.
  28. Boullata JI, Nace AM. Safety issues with herbal medicine. Pharmacotherapy. 2000;20:257-69. doi: 10.1592/phco.20.4.257.34886. PubMed PMID: 10730682.
  29. Molavi Vardanjani H, Salehi Z, Alembizar F, Cramer H, Pasalar M. Prevalence and the Determinants of Traditional, Complementary, and Integrative Medicine Use Among Breastfeeding Mothers: A Cross-Sectional Study. J Integr Complement Med. 2022;28:67-76. doi: 10.1089/jicm.2021.0270. PubMed PMID: 35085020.
  30. Abdel-Barry JA, Abdel-Hassan IA, Jawad AM, al-Hakiem MH. Hypoglycaemic effect of aqueous extract of the leaves of Trigonella foenum-graecum in healthy volunteers. East Mediterr Health J. 2000;6:83-8. PubMed PMID: 11370345.
  31. Rao A, Grant R. The effect of Trigonella foenum-graecum extract on prostate-specific antigen, and prostate function in otherwise healthy men with benign prostate hyperplasia. Phytother Res. 2020;34:634-9. doi: 10.1002/ptr.6554. PubMed PMID: 31828857.
  32. Bumrungpert A, Somboonpanyakul P, Pavadhgul P, Thaninthranon S. Effects of Fenugreek, Ginger, and Turmeric Supplementation on Human Milk Volume and Nutrient Content in Breastfeeding Mothers: A Randomized Double-Blind Controlled Trial. Breastfeed Med. 2018;13:645-50. doi: 10.1089/bfm.2018.0159. PubMed PMID: 30411974.
  33. Chevassus H, Molinier N, Costa F, Galtier F, Renard E, Petit P. A fenugreek seed extract selectively reduces spontaneous fat consumption in healthy volunteers. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2009;65:1175-8. doi: 10.1007/s00228-009-0733-5. PubMed PMID: 19809809.
  34. Sharma RD, Raghuram TC, Rao NS. Effect of fenugreek seeds on blood glucose and serum lipids in type I diabetes. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1990;44:301-6. PubMed PMID: 2194788.
  35. Gupta A, Gupta R, Lal B. Effect of Trigonella foenum-graecum (fenugreek) seeds on glycaemic control and insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a double blind placebo controlled study. J Assoc Physicians India. 2001;49:1057-61. PubMed PMID: 11868855.
  36. Steels E, Rao A, Vitetta L. Physiological aspects of male libido enhanced by standardized Trigonella foenum-graecum extract and mineral formulation. Phytother Res. 2011;25:1294-300. doi: 10.1002/ptr.3360. PubMed PMID: 21312304.
  37. Rao A, Steels E, Beccaria G, Inder WJ, Vitetta L. Influence of a Specialized Trigonella foenum-graecum Seed Extract (Libifem), on Testosterone, Estradiol and Sexual Function in Healthy Menstruating Women, a Randomised Placebo Controlled Study. Phytother Res. 2015;29:1123-30. doi: 10.1002/ptr.5355. PubMed PMID: 25914334.
  38. Najdi RA, Hagras MM, Kamel FO, Magadmi RM. A randomized controlled clinical trial evaluating the effect of Trigonella foenum-graecum (fenugreek) versus glibenclamide in patients with diabetes. Afr Health Sci. 2019;19:1594-601. doi: 10.4314/ahs.v19i1.34. PubMed PMID: 31148988; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6531936.
  39. Chevassus H, Gaillard JB, Farret A, Costa F, Gabillaud I, Mas E, et al. A fenugreek seed extract selectively reduces spontaneous fat intake in overweight subjects. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2010;66:449-55. doi: 10.1007/s00228-009-0770-0. PubMed PMID: 20020282.
  40. Emtiazy M, Oveidzadeh L, Habibi M, Molaeipour L, Talei D, Jafari Z, et al. Investigating the effectiveness of the Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (fenugreek) seeds in mild asthma: a randomized controlled trial. Allergy Asthma Clin Immunol. 2018;14:19. doi: 10.1186/s13223-018-0238-9. PubMed PMID: 29743896; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5930943.
  41. Lu FR, Shen L, Qin Y, Gao L, Li H, Dai Y. Clinical observation on trigonella foenum-graecum L. total saponins in combination with sulfonylureas in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Chin J Integr Med. 2008;14:56-60. doi: 10.1007/s11655-007-9005-3. PubMed PMID: 18219452.
  42. Pandaran Sudheeran S, Jacob D, Natinga Mulakal J, Gopinathan Nair G, Maliakel A, Maliakel B, et al. Safety, Tolerance, and Enhanced Efficacy of a Bioavailable Formulation of Curcumin With Fenugreek Dietary Fiber on Occupational Stress: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Pilot Study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2016;36:236-43. doi: 10.1097/JCP.0000000000000508. PubMed PMID: 27043120.
  43. Mirgaloybayat S, Akbari Sene A, Jayervand F, Vazirian M, Mohazzab A, Kazerooni M. Comparison of the Effect of Fenugreek and Metformin on Clinical and Metabolic Status of Cases with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: A Randomized Trial. J Reprod Infertil. 2024;25:120-32. doi: 10.18502/jri.v25i2.16040. PubMed PMID: 39157801; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC11327428.
  44. Shamshad Begum S, Jayalakshmi HK, Vidyavathi HG, Gopakumar G, Abin I, Balu M, et al. A Novel Extract of Fenugreek Husk (FenuSMART) Alleviates Postmenopausal Symptoms and Helps to Establish the Hormonal Balance: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study. Phytother Res. 2016;30:1775-84. doi: 10.1002/ptr.5680. PubMed PMID: 27406028.
  45. Swaroop A, Jaipuriar AS, Gupta SK, Bagchi M, Kumar P, Preuss HG, et al. Efficacy of a Novel Fenugreek Seed Extract (Trigonella foenum-graecum, Furocyst) in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS). Int J Med Sci. 2015;12:825-31. doi: 10.7150/ijms.13024. PubMed PMID: 26516311; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4615243.
  46. Nathan J, Panjwani S, Mohan V, Joshi V, Thakurdesai PA. Efficacy and safety of standardized extract of Trigonella foenum-graecum L seeds as an adjuvant to L-Dopa in the management of patients with Parkinson’s disease. Phytother Res. 2014;28:172-8. doi: 10.1002/ptr.4969. PubMed PMID: 23512705.
  47. Florentin M, Liberopoulos E, Elisaf MS, Tsimihodimos V. No effect of fenugreek, bergamot and olive leaf extract on glucose homeostasis in patients with prediabetes: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. Arch Med Sci Atheroscler Dis. 2019;4:e162-e6. doi: 10.5114/amsad.2019.86756. PubMed PMID: 31448348; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6704765.
  48. Verma N, Usman K, Patel N, Jain A, Dhakre S, Swaroop A, et al. A multicenter clinical study to determine the efficacy of a novel fenugreek seed (Trigonella foenum-graecum) extract (Fenfuro) in patients with type 2 diabetes. Food Nutr Res. 2016;60:32382. doi: 10.3402/fnr.v60.32382. PubMed PMID: 27733237; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5061863.
  49. Geberemeskel GA, Debebe YG, Nguse NA. Antidiabetic Effect of Fenugreek Seed Powder Solution (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) on Hyperlipidemia in Diabetic Patients. J Diabetes Res. 2019;2019:8507453. doi: 10.1155/2019/8507453. PubMed PMID: 31583253; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6748210.
  50. Madar Z, Abel R, Samish S, Arad J. Glucose-lowering effect of fenugreek in non-insulin dependent diabetics. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1988;42:51-4. PubMed PMID: 3286242.
  51. Younesy S, Amiraliakbari S, Esmaeili S, Alavimajd H, Nouraei S. Effects of fenugreek seed on the severity and systemic symptoms of dysmenorrhea. J Reprod Infertil. 2014;15:41-8. PubMed PMID: 24695380; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3955423.
  52. Losso JN, Holliday DL, Finley JW, Martin RJ, Rood JC, Yu Y, et al. Fenugreek bread: a treatment for diabetes mellitus. J Med Food. 2009;12:1046-9. doi: 10.1089/jmf.2008.0199. PubMed PMID: 19857068.
  53. Inanmdar W, Sultana A, Mubeen U, Rahman K. Clinical efficacy of Trigonella foenum graecum (Fenugreek) and dry cupping therapy on intensity of pain in patients with primary dysmenorrhea. Chin J Integr Med. 2016. doi: 10.1007/s11655-016-2259-x. PubMed PMID: 27225291.
  54. Park HJ, Lee KS, Lee EK, Park NC. Efficacy and Safety of a Mixed Extract of Trigonella foenum-graecum Seed and Lespedeza cuneata in the Treatment of Testosterone Deficiency Syndrome: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial. World J Mens Health. 2018;36:230-8. doi: 10.5534/wjmh.170004. PubMed PMID: 29623697; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6119847.
  55. Hassanzadeh Bashtian M, Emami SA, Mousavifar N, Esmaily HA, Mahmoudi M, Mohammad Poor AH. Evaluation of Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graceum L.), Effects Seeds Extract on Insulin Resistance in Women with Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome. Iran J Pharm Res. 2013;12:475-81. PubMed PMID: 24250624; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3813238.
  56. Rao A, Steels E, Inder WJ, Abraham S, Vitetta L. Testofen, a specialised Trigonella foenum-graecum seed extract reduces age-related symptoms of androgen decrease, increases testosterone levels and improves sexual function in healthy aging males in a double-blind randomised clinical study. Aging Male. 2016;19:134-42. doi: 10.3109/13685538.2015.1135323. PubMed PMID: 26791805.
  57. Maheshwari A, Verma N, Swaroop A, Bagchi M, Preuss HG, Tiwari K, et al. Efficacy of Furosap(TM), a novel Trigonella foenum-graecum seed extract, in Enhancing Testosterone Level and Improving Sperm Profile in Male Volunteers. Int J Med Sci. 2017;14:58-66. doi: 10.7150/ijms.17256. PubMed PMID: 28138310; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5278660.
  58. Hausenblas HA, Conway KL, Coyle KRM, Barton E, Smith LD, Esposito M, et al. Efficacy of fenugreek seed extract on men’s psychological and physical health: a randomized placebo-controlled double-blind clinical trial. J Complement Integr Med. 2020;18:445-8. doi: 10.1515/jcim-2019-0101. PubMed PMID: 32441668.
  59. Zarghi A, Haddadi M, Tabarraie Y, Movahedzadeh D, Ghobadi F, Sarpooshi HR. Effect of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graceum L.) seeds powder on gastrointestinal bleeding in mechanically ventilated patients: A double-blind, randomized controlled clinical trial. J Tradit Chin Med Sci. 2021;8:150-4. doi: 10.1016/j.jtcms.2021.05.003.
  60. Foroumandi E, Javan R, Moayed L, Fahimi H, Kheirabadi F, Neamatshahi M, et al. The effects of fenugreek seed extract supplementation in patients with Alzheimer’s disease: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Phytother Res. 2023;37:285-94. doi: 10.1002/ptr.7612. PubMed PMID: 36199177.
  61. Lee-Odegard S, Gundersen TE, Drevon CA. Effect of a plant extract of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) on testosterone in blood plasma and saliva in a double blind randomized controlled intervention study. PLoS One. 2024;19:e0310170. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0310170. PubMed PMID: 39288153; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC11407615.
  62. Hota D, Padhy BM, Maiti R, Bisoi D, Sahoo JP, Patro BK, et al. A Placebo-Controlled, Double-Blind Clinical Investigation to Evaluate the Efficacy of a Patented Trigonella foenum-graecum Seed Extract “Fenfuro(R)” in Type 2 Diabetics. J Am Nutr Assoc. 2024;43:147-56. doi: 10.1080/27697061.2023.2233008. PubMed PMID: 37459747.
  63. Singh A, Gainder S, Banerjee P, Goel A, Kumar P, Mondal B, et al. Efficacy of a Proprietary Fenugreek Seed Extract (Trigonella foenum-graecum, Furocyst(R)) in Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): a Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study. J Am Nutr Assoc. 2023;42:651-9. doi: 10.1080/27697061.2022.2126410. PubMed PMID: 36219198.
  64. Robert SD, Ismail AA, Rosli WI. Reduction of postprandial blood glucose in healthy subjects by buns and flatbreads incorporated with fenugreek seed powder. Eur J Nutr. 2016;55:2275-80. doi: 10.1007/s00394-015-1037-4. PubMed PMID: 26358163.
  65. Sundaram G, Ramakrishnan T, Parthasarathy H, Raja M, Raj S. Fenugreek, diabetes, and periodontal disease: A cross-link of sorts! J Indian Soc Periodontol. 2018;22:122-6. doi: 10.4103/jisp.jisp_322_17. PubMed PMID: 29769766; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5939019.
  66. Ansari M, Sadeghi P, Mahdavi H, Fattahi-Dolatabadi M, Mohamadi N, Asadi A, et al. Fenugreek dermal patch, a new natural topical antinociceptive medication for relieving the postherniotomy pain, a double-blind placebo controlled trial. J Complement Integr Med. 2019;16. doi: 10.1515/jcim-2018-0082. PubMed PMID: 30721143.
  67. Bordia A, Verma SK, Srivastava KC. Effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) and fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum L.) on blood lipids, blood sugar and platelet aggregation in patients with coronary artery disease. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 1997;56:379-84. doi: 10.1016/s0952-3278(97)90587-1. PubMed PMID: 9175175.
  68. Kassaian N, Azadbakht L, Forghani B, Amini M. Effect of fenugreek seeds on blood glucose and lipid profiles in type 2 diabetic patients. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2009;79:34-9. doi: 10.1024/0300-9831.79.1.34. PubMed PMID: 19839001.
  69. Ranade M, Mudgalkar N. A simple dietary addition of fenugreek seed leads to the reduction in blood glucose levels: A parallel group, randomized single-blind trial. Ayu. 2017;38:24-7. doi: 10.4103/ayu.AYU_209_15. PubMed PMID: 29861588; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5954247.
  70. Kiss R, Szabo K, Gesztelyi R, Somodi S, Kovacs P, Szabo Z, et al. Insulin-Sensitizer Effects of Fenugreek Seeds in Parallel with Changes in Plasma MCH Levels in Healthy Volunteers. Int J Mol Sci. 2018;19. doi: 10.3390/ijms19030771. PubMed PMID: 29518003; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5877632.
  71. Mathern JR, Raatz SK, Thomas W, Slavin JL. Effect of fenugreek fiber on satiety, blood glucose and insulin response and energy intake in obese subjects. Phytother Res. 2009;23:1543-8. doi: 10.1002/ptr.2795. PubMed PMID: 19353539.
  72. Steels E, Steele ML, Harold M, Coulson S. Efficacy of a Proprietary Trigonella foenum-graecum L. De-Husked Seed Extract in Reducing Menopausal Symptoms in Otherwise Healthy Women: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study. Phytother Res. 2017;31:1316-22. doi: 10.1002/ptr.5856. PubMed PMID: 28707431.
  73. Palacios S, Soler E, Ramirez M, Lilue M, Khorsandi D, Losa F. Effect of a multi-ingredient based food supplement on sexual function in women with low sexual desire. BMC Womens Health. 2019;19:58. doi: 10.1186/s12905-019-0755-9. PubMed PMID: 31039769; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6492381.
  74. Mehrzadi S, Mirzaei R, Heydari M, Sasani M, Yaqoobvand B, Huseini HF. Efficacy and Safety of a Traditional Herbal Combination in Patients with Type II Diabetes Mellitus: A Randomized Controlled Trial. J Diet Suppl. 2021;18:31-43. doi: 10.1080/19390211.2020.1727076. PubMed PMID: 32081056.
  75. Varghese N, Ramesh A, Potdar R. Clinical Evaluation of Fenugreek Toothpaste and Regular Toothpaste in Control of Gingivitis–A Comparative Study. Int J Sci Res Publ. 2020;13:133-7.
  76. Patil SP, Niphadkar PV, Bapat MM. Allergy to fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum). Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 1997;78:297-300. doi: 10.1016/S1081-1206(10)63185-7. PubMed PMID: 9087156.
  77. Bentele-Jaberg N, Guenova E, Mehra T, Nageli M, Chang YT, Cozzio A, et al. The Phytotherapeutic Fenugreek as Trigger of Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis. Dermatology. 2015;231:99-102. doi: 10.1159/000433423. PubMed PMID: 26138328.
  78. Joseph NI, Slavin E, Peppers BP, Hostoffer RW, Jr. Fenugreek Anaphylaxis in a Pediatric Patient. Allergy Rhinol (Providence). 2018;9:2152656718764134. doi: 10.1177/2152656718764134. PubMed PMID: 29977649; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6028160.
  79. Korman SH, Cohen E, Preminger A. Pseudo-maple syrup urine disease due to maternal prenatal ingestion of fenugreek. J Paediatr Child Health. 2001;37:403-4. doi: 10.1046/j.1440-1754.2001.00617.x. PubMed PMID: 11532065.
  80. Lambert JP, Cormier J. Potential interaction between warfarin and boldo-fenugreek. Pharmacotherapy. 2001;21:509-12. doi: 10.1592/phco.21.5.509.34492. PubMed PMID: 11310527.
  81. Aurich S, Spiric J, Engin A, Simon JC, Mahler V, Treudler R. Report of a Case of IgE-Mediated Anaphylaxis to Fenugreek. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol. 2019;29:56-8. doi: 10.18176/jiaci.0328. PubMed PMID: 30785103.
  82. Doolabh K, Finnegan D, Pehlivan N, Farrand S. Oral fenugreek seed consumption and serotonin syndrome. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2019;53:1225. doi: 10.1177/0004867419866912. PubMed PMID: 31379190.
  83. Ohnuma N, Yamaguchi E, Kawakami Y. Anaphylaxis to curry powder. Allergy. 1998;53:452-4. doi: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.1998.tb03924.x. PubMed PMID: 9574894.
  84. Ebo DG, Bridts CH, Mertens MH, Stevens WJ. Coriander anaphylaxis in a spice grinder with undetected occupational allergy. Acta Clin Belg. 2006;61:152-6. doi: 10.1179/acb.2006.025. PubMed PMID: 16881566.
  85. Ekor M. The growing use of herbal medicines: issues relating to adverse reactions and challenges in monitoring safety. Front Pharmacol. 2014;4:177. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2013.00177. PubMed PMID: 24454289; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC3887317.
  86. Suna S, Tamer CE, Özcan-Sinir G. Trends and possibilities of the usage of medicinal herbal extracts in beverage production. In: Grumezescu AM, Holban AM, eds. Natural Beverages. London: Academic Press; 2019. p. 361-98.
  87. Karunamoorthi K, Jegajeevanram K, Vijayalakshmi J, Mengistie E. Traditional medicinal plants: a source of phytotherapeutic modality in resource-constrained health care settings. J Evid Based Complement Altern Med. 2013;18:67-74. doi: 10.1177/2156587212460241.
  88. Onakpoya IJ, Heneghan CJ, Aronson JK. Post-marketing withdrawal of 462 medicinal products because of adverse drug reactions: a systematic review of the world literature. BMC Med. 2016;14:10. doi: 10.1186/s12916-016-0553-2. PubMed PMID: 26843061; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4740994.
  89. Zhang J, Onakpoya IJ, Posadzki P, Eddouks M. The safety of herbal medicine: from prejudice to evidence. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2015;2015:316706. doi: 10.1155/2015/316706. PubMed PMID: 25838831; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4370194.
  90. Timbo BB, Chirtel SJ, Ihrie J, Oladipo T, Velez-Suarez L, Brewer V, et al. Dietary Supplement Adverse Event Report Data From the FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition Adverse Event Reporting System (CAERS), 2004-2013. Ann Pharmacother. 2018;52:431-8. doi: 10.1177/1060028017744316. PubMed PMID: 29171279.
  91. Lenssen KGM, Bast A, de Boer A. How does scientific information reach the consumer? A case study among students into providing verbal information on dietary supplements at point of purchase. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2021;72:402-17. doi: 10.1080/09637486.2020.1817344. PubMed PMID: 32907414.
  92. Chiba T, Sato Y, Nakanishi T, Yokotani K, Suzuki S, Umegaki K. Inappropriate usage of dietary supplements in patients by miscommunication with physicians in Japan. Nutrients. 2014;6:5392-404. doi: 10.3390/nu6125392. PubMed PMID: 25431879; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4276974.
  93. de Boer A, Geboers L, van de Koppel S, van Hunsel F. Governance of nutrivigilance in the Netherlands: Reporting adverse events of non-registered products. Health Policy. 2022;126:731-7. doi: 10.1016/j.healthpol.2022.05.011. PubMed PMID: 35643570.
  94. Khorshidian N, Yousefi Asli M, Arab M, Adeli Mirzaie A, Mortazavian AM. Fenugreek: potential applications as a functional food and nutraceutical. Nutraceutical Nutr Food Sci Res. 2016;3:5-16. doi: 10.18869/acadpub.nfsr.3.1.5.
  95. Jhajhria A, Kumar K. Fenugreek with its medicinal applications. Int J Pharm Sci Rev Res. 2016;41:194-201.
  96. Kandhare AD, Thakurdesai PA, Wangikar P, Bodhankar SL. A systematic literature review of fenugreek seed toxicity by using ToxRTool: evidence from preclinical and clinical studies. Heliyon. 2019;5:e01536. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01536. PubMed PMID: 31049444; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6482331.
  97. Vijayakumar MV, Singh S, Chhipa RR, Bhat MK. The hypoglycaemic activity of fenugreek seed extract is mediated through the stimulation of an insulin signalling pathway. Br J Pharmacol. 2005;146:41-8. doi: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0706312. PubMed PMID: 15980869; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC1576255.
  98. Hannan JM, Ali L, Rokeya B, Khaleque J, Akhter M, Flatt PR, et al. Soluble dietary fibre fraction of Trigonella foenum-graecum (fenugreek) seed improves glucose homeostasis in animal models of type 1 and type 2 diabetes by delaying carbohydrate digestion and absorption, and enhancing insulin action. Br J Nutr. 2007;97:514-21. doi: 10.1017/S0007114507657869. PubMed PMID: 17313713.
  99. Hadi A, Arab A, Hajianfar H, Talaei B, Miraghajani M, Babajafari S, et al. The effect of fenugreek seed supplementation on serum irisin levels, blood pressure, and liver and kidney function in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A parallel randomized clinical trial. Complement Ther Med. 2020;49:102315. doi: 10.1016/j.ctim.2020.102315. PubMed PMID: 32147060.
  100. Sauvaire Y, Ribes G, Baccou JC, Loubatieeres-Mariani MM. Implication of steroid saponins and sapogenins in the hypocholesterolemic effect of fenugreek. Lipids. 1991;26:191-7. doi: 10.1007/BF02543970. PubMed PMID: 2046485.
  101. Natarajan B, Muralidharan A, Satish R, Dhananjayan R. Neuropharmacological Activity of Trigonella foenum graecum Linn. Seeds. J Nat Remedies. 2007;7:160-5.
  102. Singletary KW. Fenugreek: overview of potential health benefits. Nutr Today. 2017;52:93-111. doi: 10.1097/NT.0000000000000209.
  103. Smith M. Therapeutic applications of fenugreek. Altern Med Rev. 2003;8:20-7.
Iranian Journal of Medical Sciences

Articles InPress, Corrected Proof
Available Online from 30 December 2025
Files
History
  • Received: 01 March 2025
  • Revised: 02 May 2025
  • Accepted: 28 June 2025
Share
How to cite
Statistics