Iranian Journal of Medical Sciences

Iranian Journal of Medical Sciences

Current Issue

By Issue

By Author

By Subject

Author Index

Keyword Index

About Journal

Aims and Scope

Journal Team

Publication Ethics

Indexing and Abstracting

Related Links

Peer Review Process

Journal Metrics

Cosmetic Surgery in the Gulf Cooperation Council: Societal Shifts, Psychological Implications, and Policy Challenges: A Narrative Review

Document Type : Review Article

Authors

Department of Community Medicine, RAK College of Medical Sciences, RAK Medical and Health Science University, Ras Al Khaimah, United Arab Emirates

10.30476/ijms.2025.105988.4009

Abstract

The impact of globalization, along with the change in societal values and economic growth, has contributed to the growing popularity of cosmetic procedures across the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, including Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. This study explores the prevalence of cosmetic procedures and their correlation with body image perception in this region. Utilizing a comprehensive literature review of research published preferably between 2011 and 2024, this study explores the trends of surgical and non-surgical procedures, the demographics of the users, as well as the determinants of the decision to undergo the procedure in the region. Key determinants include social media popularity, an increased level of awareness towards aesthetic options, and cultural shifts.
There is a growing trend of increasing acceptance of rhinoplasty, liposuction, and Botox procedures among women and men aged 20-40. The motivations behind these choices include societal trends, professional image, and self-esteem. However, disparities in access, cultural sensitivities, and ethical concerns persist, especially when balancing traditional values with modern beauty standards.
The implications of cosmetic surgery go beyond aesthetics, encompassing physical health risks, psychological outcomes, and ethical dilemmas. Much attention has focused on strengthening robust regulatory frameworks, ethical practices, and patient education to ensure patients are safe and well-informed before making a decision. Moreover, the literature remains sparse on several fronts, including male underrepresentation, long-term psychosocial outcomes, and the influence of cultural and religious norms. Further investigation into these issues will broaden understanding and inform policy formulation in the rapidly evolving field of cosmetic surgery in GCC countries.

Highlights

Mohamed Anas Patni (Google Scholar) 

Keywords

References
  1. Korečková A. The ideal of female beauty in Greek tombstone inscriptions and writings of early Christian authors: some remarks and examples. Biblic Ann. 2019;9:397-412. doi: 10.31743/biban.4203.
  2. Tovee MJ, Tasker K, Benson PJ. Is symmetry a visual cue to attractiveness in the human female body? Evol Hum Behav. 2000;21:191-200. doi: 10.1016/s1090-5138(00)00040-4. PubMed PMID: 10828557.
  3. Yi J. Beauty is in the eye of the West: an analysis of An Na’s The Fold. ALAN Rev. 2015;42:48-59. doi: 10.21061/alan.v42i3.a.5.
  4. Little AC, Apicella CL, Marlowe FW. Preferences for symmetry in human faces in two cultures: data from the UK and the Hadza, an isolated group of hunter-gatherers. Proc Biol Sci. 2007;274:3113-7. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2007.0895. PubMed PMID: 17925281; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2293939.
  5. Tylka TL. Positive psychology perspectives on body image. In: Encyclopedia of Body Image and Human Appearance. Vol 2. San Diego (CA): Academic Press; 2012. p. 657-63. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-384925-0.00104-8.
  6. Markarian MK, Hovsepian RV. The interface of cosmetic medicine and surgery: working from the inside and the outside. Clin Plast Surg. 2011;38:335-45, v. doi: 10.1016/j.cps.2011.02.001. PubMed PMID: 21824534.
  7. Tambo E, Almeer H, Alshamrani Y. Health and beauty cosmeceuticals industry and market expansion in Saudi Arabia. Pharmaceut Reg Affairs. 2016;5:2.
  8. Tam KP, Ng HK, Kim YH, Yeung VW, Cheung FY. Attitudes toward cosmetic surgery patients: the role of culture and social contact. J Soc Psychol. 2012;152:458-79. doi: 10.1080/00224545.2011.637997. PubMed PMID: 22822685.
  9. Cherrier H, Belk R. Setting the conditions for going global: Dubai’s transformations and the Emirati women. J Mark Manag. 2015;31:1-18. doi: 10.1080/0267257X.2014.957713.
  10. Paulo MS, Loney T, Lapao LV. How do we strengthen the health workforce in a rapidly developing high-income country? A case study of Abu Dhabi’s health system in the United Arab Emirates. Hum Resour Health. 2019;17:9. doi: 10.1186/s12960-019-0345-9. PubMed PMID: 30678690; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6346501.
  11. Thomas J, Marzooqi FHA, Tahboub-Schulte S, Furber SW. Changing physical appearance preferences in the United Arab Emirates. Ment Health Relig Cult. 2014;17:594-600. doi: 10.1080/13674676.2013.871242.
  12. Alghamdi HY, Alrashed AM, Alzahrani SM, Altalhi IA, Althubaiti RS, Abd-Elrahman TM. The Health Impacts, Prevalence, and Acceptance Level of Cosmetics Interventions Among Females in Saudi Arabia. Aesthet Surg J Open Forum. 2023;5:ojad053. doi: 10.1093/asjof/ojad053. PubMed PMID: 37441562; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC10335163.
  13. Alharethy SE. Trends and demographic characteristics of Saudi cosmetic surgery patients. Saudi Med J. 2017;38:738-41. doi: 10.15537/smj.2017.7.18528. PubMed PMID: 28674720; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5556282.
  14. Alnaim MF, Alraihan JI, Al Rabiah NM, Zogel B, Alfaifi SM, Azam AN, et al. Quality of Life Assessment for Men With Gynecomastia in Saudi Arabia. Cureus. 2022;14:e30925. doi: 10.7759/cureus.30925. PubMed PMID: 36465764; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC9710853.
  15. Omer EED, Bali AO. The impact of social media content on cosmetic choices among Arab girls. Acad J Interdiscip Stud. 2024;13:15. doi: 10.36941/ajis-2024-0149.
  16. Al Alawi K, Shaqsi S, Al Hosni A, Firaisi A. Public perception of plastic and reconstructive surgery in the Sultanate of Oman: a crowd-sourcing national survey. Eur J Plast Surg. 2020;43:825-30. doi: 10.1007/s00238-020-01650-y.
  17. Edwin M, Mohamed S, Vergara J. A study on consumers’ brand preferences relating to specific cosmetic products among Omani women. Saudi J Bus Manag Stud. 2020;5:418-27. doi: 10.36348/sjbms.2020.v05i07.006.
  18. Maisel A, Waldman A, Furlan K, Weil A, Sacotte K, Lazaroff JM, et al. Self-reported Patient Motivations for Seeking Cosmetic Procedures. JAMA Dermatol. 2018;154:1167-74. doi: 10.1001/jamadermatol.2018.2357. PubMed PMID: 30140900; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6233736
  19. Farhan A, AlMahmeed M, Fakhro A. Unveiling the True Price: Assessing the Economic Impact of Cosmetic Surgery Tourism on a Single Tertiary Center in Bahrain. Aesthet Surg J Open Forum. 2024;6:ojae099. doi: 10.1093/asjof/ojae099. PubMed PMID: 39628515; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC11614354.
  20. Makki T [Internet]. Demand for plastic, cosmetic surgeries on the rise in Qatar. [cited 19 December 2024]. Available from: https://drmakki.com/demand-for-plastic-cosmetic-surgeries-on-the-rise-in-qatar-4/
  21. Wang JV, Akintilo L, Geronemus RG. Growth of cosmetic procedures in millennials: A 4.5-year clinical review. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2020;19:3210-2. doi: 10.1111/jocd.13768. PubMed PMID: 33030801.
  22. Arkoubi A, Aldaghri F, Daghstani WA, Hafiz TA, Alanazi GB, Almughira AI, et al. Prevalence and Determinants of Plastic Surgery Among Adults in Saudi Arabia. Cureus. 2024;16:e52036. doi: 10.7759/cureus.52036. PubMed PMID: 38347975; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC10859679.
  23. Alizadeh N, Ayyoubi S, Naghipour M, Hassanzadeh R, Mohtasham-Amiri Z, Zaresharifi S, et al. Can laser treatment improve quality of life of hirsute women? Int J Womens Health. 2017;9:777-80. doi: 10.2147/IJWH.S137910. PubMed PMID: 29089786; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC5655156.
  24. Sindi EE, Bondagji MF, Malibary JA, Alghamdi MK, Baashar DS, Sindi SA, et al. An Evaluation of the Effect of Social Media Platforms on the General Population’s Decision-Making About Cosmetic Procedures in Makkah City, Saudi Arabia. Cureus. 2023;15:e41093. doi: 10.7759/cureus.41093. PubMed PMID: 37519621; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC10380063.
  25. Alkhathami AM, Alhassan TS, Fayi KA, Albrahim RA, Al-Jabr KH, Alghamdi AA. Acceptance of Young Saudi Women to Undergo Cosmetic Surgery and Factors Influencing Their Decision. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2023;11:e5497. doi: 10.1097/GOX.0000000000005497. PubMed PMID: 38145150; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC10745234.
  26. Ashikali EM, Dittmar H, Ayers S. The effect of cosmetic surgery reality TV shows on adolescent girls’ body image. Psychol Pop Media Cult. 2014;3:141-53. doi: 10.1037/ppm0000022.
  27. Morait SA, Abuhaimed MA, Alharbi MS, Almohsen BE, Alturki AT, Alarbash AA. Attitudes and acceptance of the Saudi population toward cosmetic surgeries in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. J Family Med Prim Care. 2019;8:1685-90. doi: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_249_19. PubMed PMID: 31198737; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6559073.
  28. Brown A, Furnham A, Glanville L, Swami V. Factors that affect the likelihood of undergoing cosmetic surgery. Aesthet Surg J. 2007;27:501-8. doi: 10.1016/j.asj.2007.06.004. PubMed PMID: 19341678.
  29. Almajnoni RS, Alharbi M, F KA, AlSulami L, Alsulami N, Waiz W, et al. Acceptance and Attitude Toward Cosmetic Surgeries in the Western Region of Saudi Arabia: A Cross-Sectional Survey. Cureus. 2023;15:e45292. doi: 10.7759/cureus.45292. PubMed PMID: 37846275; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC10576870.
  30. Walker C, Krumhuber E, Dayan S, Furnham A. Effects of social media use on desire for cosmetic surgery among young women. Curr Psychol. 2021;40:3720-30. doi: 10.1007/s12144-019-00282-1.
  31. Aldosari B. Do filters and pose in selfies have an effect on cosmetic procedures. Saudi Journal of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery. 2020;22:21-3.
  32. Horch RE, Jaeger K, Stark GB. Quality of life after breast reduction-plasty. Handchir Mikrochir Plast Chir. 1999;31:137-42. doi: 10.1055/s-1999-13510. PubMed PMID: 10337560.
  33. Roje Z, Roje Z, Milosevic M, Varvodic J, Mance M. Current trends in breast reduction. Coll Antropol. 2012;36:657-68. PubMed PMID: 22856260.
  34. Ellsworth WA, Basu CB, Iverson RE. Perioperative considerations for patient safety during cosmetic surgery - preventing complications. Can J Plast Surg. 2009;17:9-16. doi: 10.1177/229255030901700106. PubMed PMID: 20190907; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC2705307.
  35. Khunger N. Complications in Cosmetic Surgery: A Time to Reflect and Review and not Sweep Them Under the Carpet. J Cutan Aesthet Surg. 2015;8:189-90. doi: 10.4103/0974-2077.172188. PubMed PMID: 26865782; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4728899.
  36. Luvsannyam E, Patel D, Hassan Z, Nukala S, Somagutta MR, Hamid P. Overview of Risk Factors and Prevention of Capsular Contracture Following Implant-Based Breast Reconstruction and Cosmetic Surgery: A Systematic Review. Cureus. 2020;12:e10341. doi: 10.7759/cureus.10341. PubMed PMID: 33062465; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC7549852.
  37. Veale D. Psychological aspects of a cosmetic procedure. Psychiatry (Oxford). 2006;5:93-5. doi: 10.1383/psyt.2006.5.3.93.
  38. Sadick NS. The impact of cosmetic interventions on quality of life. Dermatol Online J. 2008;14:2. PubMed PMID: 19061562.
  39. Imadojemu S, Sarwer DB, Percec I, Sonnad SS, Goldsack JE, Berman M, et al. Influence of surgical and minimally invasive facial cosmetic procedures on psychosocial outcomes: a systematic review. JAMA Dermatol. 2013;149:1325-33. doi: 10.1001/jamadermatol.2013.6812. PubMed PMID: 24068036.
  40. Sweis IE, Spitz J, Barry DR, Jr., Cohen M. A Review of Body Dysmorphic Disorder in Aesthetic Surgery Patients and the Legal Implications. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2017;41:949-54. doi: 10.1007/s00266-017-0819-x. PubMed PMID: 28204935.
  41. Sarwer DB, Crerand CE, Didie ER. Body dysmorphic disorder in cosmetic surgery patients. Facial Plast Surg. 2003;19:7-18. doi: 10.1055/s-2003-39137. PubMed PMID: 12739178.
  42. Honigman RJ, Phillips KA, Castle DJ. A review of psychosocial outcomes for patients seeking cosmetic surgery. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2004;113:1229-37. doi: 10.1097/01.prs.0000110214.88868.ca. PubMed PMID: 15083026; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC1762095.
  43. von Soest T, Kvalem IL, Wichstrom L. Predictors of cosmetic surgery and its effects on psychological factors and mental health: a population-based follow-up study among Norwegian females. Psychol Med. 2012;42:617-26. doi: 10.1017/S0033291711001267. PubMed PMID: 21781375.
  44. Almuhanna N, Abdullah A, Abed F, Zainalabedin A, Algaidi M, Algamdi W. Prevalence of body dysmorphic disorder among female patients seeking cosmetic procedures. J Psychol Ment Health Care. 2022;6:159. doi: 10.31579/2637-8892/159.
  45. AlShahwan MA. Prevalence and characteristics of body dysmorphic disorder in Arab dermatology patients. Saudi Med J. 2020;41:73-8. doi: 10.15537/smj.2020.1.24784. PubMed PMID: 31915798; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC7001078.
  46. Rammal A, Bukhari JS, Alsharif GN, Aseeri HS, Alkhamesi AA, Alharbi RF, et al. High Prevalence of Body Dysmorphic Disorder Among Rhinoplasty Candidates: Insights From a Cross-Sectional Study in Saudi Arabia. Cureus. 2024;16:e76431. doi: 10.7759/cureus.76431. PubMed PMID: 39867022; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC11763559.
  47. Khattab NR, Abdelraouf N, Ashour T. Conflicting Cultural and Religious Views on Cosmesis: The Modern Women’s Dilemma. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2022;46:2040-52. doi: 10.1007/s00266-022-02834-6. PubMed PMID: 35386007; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC9512875.
  48. Atiyeh B, Ibrahim A. Aesthetic/Cosmetic Surgery and Ethical Challenges: The Social Media Era. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2020;44:1375-7. doi: 10.1007/s00266-020-01765-4. PubMed PMID: 32766894.
  49. Kearney L, de Blacam C, Clover AJ, Kelly EJ, O’Shaughnessy M, O’Sullivan ST, et al. Cosmetic surgical practice: are we complying with professional standards? Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2015;39:449-51. doi: 10.1007/s00266-015-0485-9. PubMed PMID: 25900450.
  50. Ahmed A, Abdulrahman M, Withnall R. Evolution of the Dubai health authority’s residency training program: A 25-year review, challenges and outcomes. J Family Med Prim Care. 2018;7:319-23. doi: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_359_17. PubMed PMID: 30090771; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6060933.
  51. Abu-Zaid A, Salem H, Alkattan K. The Saudi Medical Licensure Examination-Clinical Skills (SMLE-CS): A Call for Implementation. J Family Med Prim Care. 2020;9:12-5. doi: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_128_19. PubMed PMID: 32110557; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC7014880.
  52. AlSaffar G. Ethical programs for patients in Bahrain. In: Al-A’ali EA, Masmoudi M, editors. Advances in Business Strategy and Competitive Advantage. Hershey (PA): IGI Global; 2020. p. 53-73.
  53. Al-Talabani H, Kilic H, Ozturen A, Qasim SO. Advancing medical tourism in the United Arab Emirates: toward a sustainable health care system. Sustainability. 2019;11:230. doi: 10.3390/su11010230.
  54. Alkhateeb AF, AlAmri JM, Hussain MA. Healthcare facility variables important to biomedical staffing in line with 2030 Saudi Vision. In: 2019 IEEE International Systems Engineering Conference (ISEC). Piscataway (NJ): IEEE; 2019. p. 1-6. doi: 10.1109/IASEC.2019.8686616.
  55. Almarghoub MA, Almarzouq SF, Alissa SI. Public Perception of Plastic Surgery in Saudi Arabia. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2019;7:e2143. doi: 10.1097/GOX.0000000000002143. PubMed PMID: 31044116; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6467627.
  56. Ben-Ari S. The changing attitude of Islam toward cosmetic procedures and plastic surgery. Acta Med Iran. 2013;51:147-52. doi: 10.1556/AOrient.66.2013.2.2.
  57. Vally Z. Examination of gendered differences in the advertising of cosmetic surgery procedures in the United Arab Emirates. Hamdan Med J. 2018;11:45-52. doi: 10.4103/HMJ.HMJ_15_18.
  58. Latham M, McHale J. The regulation of cosmetic procedures: legal, ethical and practical challenges. London: Routledge; 2020. doi: 10.4324/9780429952661.
  59. Kakar H, Gambhir RS, Singh S, Kaur A, Nanda T. Informed consent: corner stone in ethical medical and dental practice. J Family Med Prim Care. 2014;3:68-71. doi: 10.4103/2249-4863.130284. PubMed PMID: 24791241; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4005206.
  60. Shaheen MS, Lane M, Chung KC. Beyond the Signature: Informed Consent from a Legal Perspective and Its Implications for Plastic Surgery. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2024;154:1037e-46e. doi: 10.1097/PRS.0000000000011602. PubMed PMID: 38923883.
  61. Morselli PG, Lippi A, Giorgini FA, Fabbri E, Pinto V. Informed consent in plastic surgery, evaluation of its effectiveness for mutual satisfaction of patient and doctor: Comparison of methods. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2019;72:1847-55. doi: 10.1016/j.bjps.2019.05.037. PubMed PMID: 31326321.
  62. Veale D, Ellison N, Werner TG, Dodhia R, Serfaty MA, Clarke A. Development of a Cosmetic Procedure Screening Questionnaire (COPS) for Body Dysmorphic Disorder. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg. 2012;65:530-2. doi: 10.1016/j.bjps.2011.09.007. PubMed PMID: 22000332.
  63. Barthelmes L, Gateley C. Psychological care of the surgical patient. Found Years. 2007;3:4-6. doi: 10.1016/j.mpfou.2006.11.002.
  64. Sarwer DB, Infield AL, Baker JL, Casas LA, Glat PM, Gold AH, et al. Two-year results of a prospective, multi-site investigation of patient satisfaction and psychosocial status following cosmetic surgery. Aesthet Surg J. 2008;28:245-50. doi: 10.1016/j.asj.2008.02.003. PubMed PMID: 19083533.
  65. Momeni A, Kim RY, Wan DC, Izadpanah A, Lee GK. Aesthetic Surgery Training during Residency in the United States: A Comparison of the Integrated, Combined, and Independent Training Models. Plast Surg Int. 2014;2014:281923. doi: 10.1155/2014/281923. PubMed PMID: 25225615; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4158306.
  66. Arab K, Barasain O, Altaweel A, Alkhayyal J, Alshiha L, Barasain R, et al. Influence of Social Media on the Decision to Undergo a Cosmetic Procedure. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open. 2019;7:e2333. doi: 10.1097/GOX.0000000000002333. PubMed PMID: 31592374; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC6756652.
  67. Tessler O, Bourn L, Lin SJ, Dupin C, Mundinger GS, Patterson C, et al. Cosmetic Surgeon Representation: Ensuring Board Certification Transparency and Patient Awareness. Ann Plast Surg. 2018;80:S431-S6. doi: 10.1097/SAP.0000000000001430. PubMed PMID: 29668511.
  68. Bascarane S, Kuppili PP, Menon V. Psychiatric Assessment and Management of Clients Undergoing Cosmetic Surgery: Overview and Need for an Integrated Approach. Indian J Plast Surg. 2021;54:8-19. doi: 10.1055/s-0040-1721868. PubMed PMID: 33854274; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC8034989.
  69. Angelos P. The Value of Ethics Education in Surgical Training. Acad Med. 2023;98:S15-S6. doi: 10.1097/ACM.0000000000005173. PubMed PMID: 36811967.
  70. Mayer JE, Goldberg DJ. Injuries Attributable to Cosmetic Procedures Performed by Unlicensed Individuals in the United States. J Clin Aesthet Dermatol. 2015;8:35-7. PubMed PMID: 26557218; PubMed Central PMCID: PMC4633211.
  71. Smith R. Statutory regulation needed to expose and stop medical fraud. BMJ. 2016;352:i293. doi: 10.1136/bmj.i293. PubMed PMID: 26841958.
  72. Nelson KC. Cosmetic surgery media, marketing and advertising requires more regulation. Austin (TX): University of Texas at Austin; 2010 [cited 25 December 2024]. Available from: http://hdl.handle.net/2152/ETD-UT-2010-05-1389
  73. Gleason JL, Swisher E, Weiss PM. Transparency and Disclosure. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 2019;46:247-55. doi: 10.1016/j.ogc.2019.01.007. PubMed PMID: 31056127.
  74. Herlehy AM. Influencing safe perioperative practice through evolution. AORN J. 2012;95:313-4. doi: 10.1016/j.aorn.2012.01.025. PubMed PMID: 22381542.
  75. Gilmour S. A qualitative study exploring the application of psychosocial screening to identify psychological conditions in non-surgical aesthetic patients. J Aesthet Nurs. 2021;10:460-6. doi: 10.12968/joan.2021.10.10.460.
  76. Rehman U, Perwaiz I, Sohaib Sarwar M, Brennan PA. Mental health screening in facial cosmetic surgery: a narrative review of the literature. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2023;61:455-63. doi: 10.1016/j.bjoms.2023.05.003. PubMed PMID: 37442708.
  77. Locatelli K, Boccara D, De Runz A, Fournier M, Chaouat M, Villa F, et al. A qualitative study of life events and psychological needs underlying the decision to have cosmetic surgery. Int J Psychiatry Med. 2017;52:88-105. doi: 10.1177/0091217417703287. PubMed PMID: 28486875.
Iranian Journal of Medical Sciences
Volume 51, Issue 4
April 2026
Pages 224-235
Files
History
  • Received: 23 May 2025
  • Revised: 18 June 2025
  • Accepted: 04 August 2025
Share
How to cite
Statistics